![]() The current requirements include belief in God, American citizenship, willingness to recite the Pledge of Allegiance, willingness to salute the flag of the United States of America, willingness to support the laws and Constitution of the United States of America, being of good character and being at least 21 years of age. Faced with losing their liquor licenses if they did not admit women, the Elks Lodges of Utah voted to become unisex in June 1993, which was followed by a vote at the Elks National Convention in July 1995 to remove the word "male" from the national membership requirements. George-Dixie Lodge 1743 (1993), the Utah Supreme Court ruled that while freedom of association allowed the Elks to remain a men-only organization, "the Elks may not avail itself of the benefits of a liquor license and the license's concomitant state regulation" as long as it violated the Utah State Civil Rights Act. ![]() In 1979, the qualifications for membership included being male, at least 21 years old, of sound mind and body, a citizen of the United States and not a member of the Communist Party. Membership was restricted to whites until 1973. In nearly all instances, the all-whites clause was made public after someone was denied the use of the Elks' dining or leisure facilities. In the early 1970s, this policy led the Order into conflict with the courts over its refusal to allow black people the use of its club and leisure activities. The BPOE was originally an all- white organization. We suggest this secondary function played a key evolutionary role in elk uniquely among North American cervids, they retain their antlers long after they fulfil their primary role in reproduction.In 1919, a "Flag Day resolution" was passed, barring membership to even passive sympathizers "of the Bolsheviks, Anarchists, the I.W.W., or kindred organizations, or who does not give undivided allegiance to" the flag and constitution of the United States. Our results run counter to classic expectations of coursing predators preferring poorer-conditioned individuals, and in so doing, reveal an important secondary function for an exaggerated sexually selected weapon-predatory deterrence. We show, however, that male elk that cast their antlers early are preferentially hunted and killed by wolves, despite early casters being in better nutritional condition than antlered individuals. Male elk face a trade-off: individuals casting antlers early begin regrowth before other males, resulting in relatively larger antlers the following year, and thus greater reproductive success, as indicated by research with red deer. Here we leveraged a unique opportunity from the predator–prey system in northern Yellowstone National Park, WY, USA to evaluate whether predation by a widespread, coursing predator (wolves) has influenced a specific weapon trait (antler retention time) in their primary cervid prey (elk). Many weapons are also retained outside of reproductive periods for secondary reasons, but the importance of these secondary functions is poorly understood. Sexually selected weapons evolved to maximize the individual reproductive success of males in many polygynous breeding species. Predation shapes the evolutionary traits of cervid weapons, Nature Ecology & Evolution (2018). The researchers found that if a group of males had just one antlerless member, it was 10 times more likely to be attacked by wolves. It also put other males around them at greater risk. Dropping their antlers had a major drawback, however-it made those individual members stick out among their peers as a prized target for hungry wolves. But they also found that the males did not drop their antlers at the same time-the earlier a male dropped his antlers, the more time his new set would have to grow, allowing them to grow bigger than other competing males. In their long study of the elk living in the park, the researchers found that wolves preferred to attack the elk after they had dropped their antlers-the sharp tines and thick neck muscles together presented a formidable means of defense. They also found that a timing issue related to antler dropping has led to a trade-off for the male elk. The researchers with this new effort have found that a second purpose is to ward off predators such as wolves. Prior research has shown that the main purpose of the antlers is to fight other males for reproductive rights with females. ![]() Male elk are known for their large rack of antlers, which they shed once each year. In North America, a type of large red deer known as elk live in many wooded areas across the continent-one of the most prominent of these areas is Yellowstone National Park.
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